Thot of Aristotle

"We suppose ourselves to possess unqualified scientific knowledge of a thing, as opposed to knowing it in the accidental way in which the sophist knows, when we think that we know the cause on which the fact depends, as the cause of that fact and of no other, and, further, that the fact could not be other than it is. Now that scientific knowing is something of this sort is evident — witness both those who falsely claim it and those who actually possess it, since the former merely imagine themselves to be, while the latter are also actually, in the condition described. Consequently the proper object of unqualified scientific knowledge is something which cannot be other than it is."

— Aristotle, Posterior Analytics (Book 1 Part 2)

The Statue Of Liberty

The Statue of Liberty was a gift to the United States from the people of France, conceived and designed as a monument to a great international friendship. But its significance has broadened and for many people throughout the world it has become the recognized symbol of liberty.

Historical Notes:

Construction of the Statue began in France in the year 1875, by sculptor Auguste Bartholdi. The final completion date of the individual sections was in June of 1884, and it stood in Paris until it was dismantled in early 1885 for shipping to the US. Engineering of the structure's assembly was done by Gustave Eiffel.

The French frigate "Isere" transported the Statue from France to the United States. In transit the Statue was reduced to 350 individual pieces and packed in 214 crates.
(The pedestal was designed by architect Richard M.Hunt in 1877. Construction of the pedestal began in 1883 and was completed in 1884, and final assembly of the statue & pedestal was completed in 1886)
On October 28, 1886 President Grover Cleveland accepted The Statue on behalf of the United States and said in part: "we will not forget that liberty here made her home; nor shall her chosen altar be neglected".

Physical Details:

There are 25 windows in the crown which comprise the jewels beneath the seven rays of the diadem. The tablet which the Statue holds in her left hand reads, in Roman numerals, "July 4, 1776" the day of America's independence from Britain.

                                        Standard

Height from base to torch              151' 1"    

Foundation of pedestal to torch        305' 1"    

Heel to top of head                    111' 1"    

Length of hand                         16' 5"    

index finger                           8' 0"      

Circumference at second joint          3' 6"      

Size of fingernail                     13"x10"   

Head from chin to cranium              17' 3"      

Head thickness from ear to ear         10' 0"      

Distance across the eye                2' 6"       

Length of nose                         4' 6"      

Right arm length                       42' 0"     

Right arm greatest thickness           12' 0"      

Thickness of waist                     35' 0"     

Width of mouth                         3' 0"       

Tablet, length                         23' 7"      

Tablet, width                          13' 7"      

Tablet, thickness                      2' 0"       

Height of granite pedestal             89' 0"     

Height of foundation                   65' 0"     




Weight of copper used in Statue - 200,000 pounds (100 tons)

Weight of steel used in Statue -  250,000 pounds (125 tons)

Total weight used in Statue -     450,000 pounds (225 tons)

Copper sheeting of Statue is 3/32 of an inch thick (2.37mm)

The Great Pyramid of Giza

The Great Pyramid of Giza , also called Khufu's Pyramid or the Pyramid of Khufu, and Pyramid of Cheops, is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza Necropolis bordering what is now Cairo, Egypt in Africa, and is the only remaining member of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It is believed the pyramid was built as a tomb for Fourth dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu (Cheops in Greek) and constructed over a 20 year period concluding around 2560 BC. The Great Pyramid was the tallest man-made structure in the world for over 3,800 years. Visibly all that remains is the underlying step-pyramid core structure seen today. Many of the casing stones that once covered the structure can still be seen around the base of the Great Pyramid. There have been varying scientific and alternative theories regarding the Great Pyramid's construction techniques. Most accepted construction theories are based on the idea that it was built by moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place.

Construction Theories of Pyramid of Giza

There have been varying scientific and alternative theories regarding the Great Pyramid's construction techniques. Most accepted construction theories are based on the idea that it was built by moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place. The disagreements center on the method by which the stones were conveyed and placed. A recent theory proposes that the building blocks were manufactured in-place from a kind of "limestone concrete". In addition to the many theories as to the techniques involved, there are also disagreements as to the kind of workforce that was used. One theory, suggested by the Greeks, posits that slaves were forced to work until the pyramid was done. This theory is no longer accepted in the modern era, however. Archaeologists believe that the Great Pyramid was built by tens of thousands of skilled workers who camped near the pyramids and worked for a salary or as a form of paying taxes until the construction was completed. The worker's cemeteries were discovered in 1990 by archaeologists Zach Haw ass and Mark Lerner. Vernier posited that the labor was organized into a hierarchy, consisting of two gangs of 100,000 men, divided into five Zea or phyla of 20,000 men each, which may have been further divided according to the skills of the workers.

The Great Wall of China

History of Wall of china

The Great Wall of China is not a continuous wall but is a collection of short walls that often follow the crest of hills on the southern edge of the Mongolian plain. Overall, the wall extends about 1500 miles (2400 kilometers).

A first set of walls, designed to keep Mongol nomads out of China, were built of earth and stones in wood frames during the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE).

Some additions and modifications were made to these simple walls over the next millennium but the major construction of the "modern" walls began in the Ming Dynasty (1388-1644 CE).

The Ming fortifications were established in new areas from the Qin walls. They were up to 25 feet (7.6 meters) high, 15 to 30 feet (4.6 to 9.1 meters) wide at the base, and from 9 to 12 feet (2.7 to 3.7 meters) wide at the top (wide enough for marching troops or wagons). At regular intervals, guard stations and watch towers were established.

Since the Great Wall was discontinuous, Mongol invaders had no trouble breaching the wall by going around it, so the wall proved unsuccessful and was eventually abandoned. Additionally, a policy of mollification during the subsequent Ch'ing Dynasty that sought to pacify the Mongol leaders through religious conversion also helped to limit the need for the wall.

Through Western contact with China from the 17th through 20th centuries, the legend of the Great Wall of China grew along with tourism to the wall. Restoration and rebuilding took place in the 20th century and in 1987 the Great Wall of China was made a World Heritage Site. Today, a portion of the Great Wall of China about 50 miles (80 km) from Beijing receives thousands of tourists each day.

Formula 1 Car The Art & Technology

The software to integrate the data from the sensors, and to manage the gearbox, comprises some half -a-million lines of line of code, which took some 20 person years to write. The gearbox can have up to seven different speeds - and if the timing of the changing of the gears is off by even a few thousandths of a second, the gearbox will self destruct.

It takes a lot of money and brain power to roll one of these F-1babes out onto the track. For example, Mclaren have a budget of about $500 million per year, and employs 350 people.

The very first formula 1 race was in 1948

The very first formula 1 race was in 1948. The very first formula1 car race was between Paris and Rouen in 1894, and the winning car averaged16.4 kilometers per hour. By 1971, the Italian F-1 Grand prix was won at an average speed of 242 kph. Today the formula 1 Championship consists of series of some 17 races, which run every two weeks between March and October.

After each race, the engineers have t frantically thinker with the car's design for the next non-negotiable race deadline in two weeks. And in each race, the car is substantially different from what it was in the previous race.

Formula 1 Technology

Formula 1 car have about one-and-half kilometers of wire, integrating the data from some 120 sensors that glean information such as the angle of the rear wing, the brake temperature, the oil pressure and the tyre pressure. These vital statistics are constantly relayed back to the crew in the pits.
Each car is made of about 9,000 different components. The body and chassis are made from carbon fiber, which when compared to steel, is four times and five times stronger. The carbonfiber steering wheel along cost $120,000

Formula 1 Car the Engines are Amazing

Formula 1 engine is three liters or less, has to always weight at least 600 kilograms, and have four wheels, only two of which are steered or driven.
The engines are amazing. They generated some 600 kilowatt at around 18,000 rpm. Compare this to your average Holden or Falcon which generated about 140 kilogram at 4,000 rpm. Actually, by the 1990s, the engines were limited to only 12,000 rpm, because of friction in the valve train. But then Renault invented pneumatically-driven valves, which let the maximum engine speed jump to 18,000 rpm.

For a decade F1 cars had run with 3.0 litre naturally-aspirated V10 engines, but in an attempt to slow the cars down, the FIA mandated that as of the 2006 season the cars must be powered by 2.4 litre naturally-aspirated engines in the V8 configuration that have no more than four valves per cylinder. Further technical restrictions such as a ban on variable intake trumpets have also been introduced with the new 2.4 L V8 formula to prevent the teams from achieving higher rpm and horsepower too quickly. As of the start of the 2007 season all engines are now limited to 19,000 rpm in an effort to improve engine reliability and to cut costs down in general.

Once the teams started using exotic alloys in the late 1990s, the FIA banned the use of exotic materials in engine construction, and only aluminum and iron alloys were allowed for the pistons, cylinders, connecting rods, and crankshafts. Nevertheless through engineering on the limit and the use of such devices as pneumatic valves, modern F1 engines have revved up to over 18,000 rpm since approximately the 2000 season. Almost each year the FIA has enforced material and design restrictions to limit power, otherwise the 3.0L V10 engines would easily have exceeded 22,000 rpm and well over 1,000 hp (745 kW). Even with the restrictions the V10s in the 2005 season were reputed to develop 960 hp (715 kW). The new 2.4L V8 engines are reported to develop between 700 hp (520 kW) and 780 hp (582 kW).

The more poorly funded teams (Ferrari spends hundreds of millions of pounds a year developing their car, while the former Minardi team spent less than 50 million) had the option of keeping the current V10 for another season, but with a rev limiter to keep them from being competitive with the most powerful V8 engines. The only team to take this option was the Toro Rosso team, which was the reformed and regrouped Minardi.

The engines produce over 100,000 BTU per minute (1,750 kW) of heat that must be dumped, usually to the atmosphere via radiators and the exhaust, which can reach temperatures over 1,000 degrees Celsius (1,800 to 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit). They consume around 650 liters (23 ft³) of air per second Race fuel consumption rate is normally around 75 liters per 100 kilometer traveled (3.1 US mpg - 3.8 UK mpg). Nonetheless a Formula One engine is over 20% more efficient at turning fuel into power than even the most economical small car.

All cars have the engine located between the driver and the rear axle. The engines are a stressed member in most cars, meaning that the engine is part of the structural support framework; being bolted to the cockpit at the front end, and transmission and rear suspension at the back end.

In the 2004 championship, engines were required to last a full race weekend; in the 2005 championship, they are required to last two full race weekends and if a team changes an engine between the two races, they incur a penalty of 10 grid positions. In 2007 this rule was altered slightly and an engine now only has to last for Saturday and Sunday running. This was to promote Friday running. In 2006, teams avoided running for long stints in an effort to save the engine and avoid a 10 place drop on the grid.

As of the 2006 Chinese Grand Prix all development of engines will be frozen until 2009, meaning that the teams will use engines of the same spec for the next two seasons.The end of the engine freeze has been suggested to be the beginning of both bio-fuel and the reintroduction of turbos, both ideas suggested by FIA President Max Mosley.
Formula 1 Car The Exotic Engineering
A formula 1 racing car carries some of the most exotic engineering known to humanity. The drives pilot these fascinating vehicles at speed up to 360 kph, while semi-reclining in a tub made of expensive carbon fiber, whit their backsides only a few centimeters off the road.
At full blast, a F-1 fuel pump delivers petrol faster then water flows out of your kitchen tap

Top speed Of Formula-1Car

Top speeds are in practice limited by the longest straight at the track and by the need to balance the car's aerodynamic configuration between high straight line speed (low down force) and high cornering speed (high down force) to achieve the fastest lap time. During the 2006 season, the top speeds of Formula 1 cars are a little over 300 km/h (186 mph) at high-down force tracks such as Albert Park, Australia and Sepang, Malaysia. These speeds are down by some 10 km/h (6 mph) from the 2005 speeds, and 15 km/h (9 mph) from the 2004 speeds, due to the recent performance restrictions (see below). On low-down force circuits greater top speeds are registered: at Gilles-Villeneuve (Canada) 325 km/h (203 mph), at Indianapolis (USA) 335 km/h (210 mph), and at Monza (Italy) 360 km/h (225 mph). In the Italian Grand Prix 2004, Antonio Pizzonia of BMW WilliamsF1 team recorded a top speed of 369.9 kilometers per hour (229 mph).

Away from the track, the BAR Honda team used a modified BAR 007 car, which they claim complied with FIA Formula One regulations, to set an unofficial speed record of 413 km/h (257 mph) on a one way straight line run on 6 November 2005 during a shakedown ahead of their Bonneville 400 record attempt. The car was optimised for top speed with only enough downforce to prevent it from leaving the ground. The car, badged as a Honda following their takeover of BAR at the end of 2005, set an FIA ratified record of 400 km/h (249 mph) on a one way run on 21 July 2006 at Bonneville Salt Flats. On this occasion the car did not fully meet FIA Formula One regulations, as it used a moveable aerodynamic rudder for stability control, breaching article 3.15 of the 2006 Formula One technical regulations which states that any specific part of the car influencing its aerodynamic performance must be rigidly secured.

Brack of Formula -1 Car

Disc brakes consist of a rotor and caliper at each wheel. Expensive carbon-carbon (the same material used on the Space Shuttle) composite rotors - introduced by the Brabham team in 9176 - are used instead of steel or cast iron because of their superior frictional, thermal, and anti-warping properties, as well as significant weight savings. These brakes are designed and manufactured to work in extreme temperatures, up to 1,000 degrees Celsius. The driver can control brake force distribution fore and aft to compensate for changes in track conditions or fuel load. Regulations specify this control has to be manual, not electronic.

An average F1 car can decelerate from 100-0 km/h (62-0 mph) in about 17 metres (55 ft), compared with a 2007 Porsche 911 Turbo which takes 31.4 metres (103 feet). When braking from higher speeds, aerodynamic downforce enables tremendous deceleration: 4.5 g to 5.0 g (44.1 to 49 m/s²), and up to 5.5 g at the high-speed circuits such as the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve (Canadian GP) and the Autodromo Nazionale Monza (Italian GP). This contrasts with 1.0 g to 1.5 g for the best sports cars (the Bugatti Veyron is claimed to be able to brake at 1.3 g). An F1 car can brake from 200 km/h (124 mph) to a complete stop just 2.9 seconds, using only 65 meters (213 ft).

ENERGY

• INTRODUCTION

*In northern latitudes (Canada, England, Holland, etc.) the cost for heating, especially, And cooling a greenhouse can amount to 70 – 85% of the total operating costs. In warmer areas (the Southwest United States, Mexico, Spain, Israel, etc.) the Costs can still be around 50% of the total operating costs. *Therefore, heating and cooling are obviously a significant part of the operating budget. *Any measures that reduce the need for heating and cooling will reduce the costs for These as well, and will therefore increase profit (the bottom line for a commercial Grower, schools and even home gardeners!). *This chapter presents methods to conserve energy in a greenhouse as well as alternatives To “traditional” methods of heating and cooling.

• ENERGY

Energy is defined as "the ability to do work." In this sense, examples of work include moving something, lifting something, warming something, or lighting something. The following is an example of the transformation of different types of energy into heat and power. Oil burns to make heat Heat boils water Water turns to steam Steam pressure turns a turbine Turbine turns an electric generator Generator produces electricity Electricity powers light bulbs Light bulbs give off light and heat

• LAW OF ENERGY

Energy is subject to the law of conservation of energy. According to this law, energy can neither be created (produced) nor destroyed itself. It can only be transformed This law is a fundamental principle of physics. It follows from the translational symmetry of time, a property of most phenomena below the cosmic scale that makes them independent of their locations on the time coordinate. Put differently, yesterday, today, and tomorrow are physically indistinguishable.

• TYPES OF ENERGY
  

+Mechanical Energy
Is the energy of motion that does the work like the wind turns a windmill

+ Heat Energy
Where motion or rise in temperature is caused by heat like a fire in your fireplace.

+ Chemical Energy
Is the chemical reaction causing changes food and fuel both storing chemical energy.

+ Electrical Energy
Is when motion, light or heat is produced by an electrical current like the electric coils on Your stove.

+ Gravitational Energy
Where motion, like water going over a dam, is caused by gravity's pull.

ENERGY CONSERVATION

INTRODUCTION
Energy conservation reduces the energy consumption and energy demand per capita, and thus offsets the growth in energy supply needed to keep up with population growth. This reduces the rise in energy costs, and can reduce the need for new power plants, and energy imports. The reduced energy demand can provide more flexibility in choosing the most preferred methods of energy production. Energy conservation is the practice of decreasing the quantity of energy used. It may be achieved through efficient energy use, in which case energy use is decreased while achieving a similar outcome, or by reduced consumption of energy services. Energy conservation may result in increase of financial capital, environmental value, national security, personal security, and human comfort. Individuals and organizations that are direct consumers of energy may want to conserve energy in order to reduce energy costs and promote economic security. Industrial and commercial users may want to increase efficiency and thus maximize profit

RATIONAL AND BENEFITS OF ENERGY CONSREVATION

Energy-efficiency improvements can slow the growth in energy consumption, save consumers money and reduce capital expenses for energy infrastructure. Additionally, energy efficiency reduces local environmental impacts, such as water and air pollution from power plants, and mitigates greenhouse gas emissions. Energy efficiency standards and labeling programs provide enormous energy savings potential that can direct developing countries towards sustainable growth.


ENERGY CONSERVATION TIPS

1. Switching from gasoline powered to more fuel efficient diesel powered engines

2. Shifting to larger multiprocessor machines

3. Using energy saving methods for drying and irrigating crops

4. Replacing old machinery with more energy-efficient equipment

5. Using new seed varieties to reduce energy-intensive chemical requirements

6. Insulating farm buildings

7. Using energy efficient irrigation systems


METHODS FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION
We still need to conserve energy! YOU can make a difference. Here's some conservation tips on how you can help:
Lighting
• Turn off lights in unoccupied rooms.
• Turn off unnecessary overhead lighting where more than one light switch exists.
• Task lighting typically uses more energy than overhead lighting. Avoid using both at the same time.
• Dim lights where dimmers are available.
Appliances
• Limit the use of small appliances, such as heaters, fans, and desk fountains. Battery operated appliances are a great option.
• Turn off coffee pots by noon daily.
Office Equipment
• Use email as an alternative for copying or faxing documents, whenever possible.
• Activate the energy saving or "sleep" mode on computers and copiers.
• Use laptop computers and ink jet printers, if available, since they use 90% less energy than desktop and laser printers.
• Turn off office equipment such as personal computers, monitors, printers, and copiers at the end of the day and when not needed for an extended period (2 hours or more.)
Other (Miscellaneous)
• Limit use of passenger elevators by using stairs when possible.
• Close drapes and blinds to keep heat/cold out.


ENERGY CONSERVATION ACT

Considering the vast potential of energy savings and benefits of energy efficiency, the Government of India enacted the Energy Conservation Act, 2001 (52 of 2001). The Act provides for the legal framework, institutional arrangement and a regulatory mechanism at the Central and State level to embark upon energy efficiency drive in the country.

STANDARDS AND LABELLING PROGRAMME
Standards and labelling (S&L) programme has been identified as one of the key activities for energy efficiency improvements. The S&L program when in place would ensure that only energy efficient equipment and appliance would be made available to the consumers. Initially the equipment to be covered under S&L program are household refrigerators, air-conditioners, water heater, electric motors, agriculture pump sets, electric lamps &fixtures, industrial fans & blowers and air-compressors. Preliminary discussions have already taken place with manufacturers of refrigerators, air conditioners, agricultural pump sets, motors, etc., regarding procedure to fix labels and setting standards for minimum energy consumption.

Axiomatic Design of I. C. Engines

This project deals with the application of Axiomatic Design and Complexity Theory to propose design changes in internal-combustion engines to improve engine efficiency and reduce hydrocarbon emissions. This project consists of the following three components:

1. A unique rotary valve design has been proposed and a prototype fabricated as a low-cost alternative to poppet valves to reduce engine friction associated with valves and throttle.




2. Higher emissions result during cold start due to incomplete vaporization of fuel, use of a richer mixture and ineffectiveness of catalytic converters at low temperatures. A novel fuel trap concept has been proposed to minimize hydrocarbon emissions during an engine cold-start. Ongoing work involves design and fabrication of a proof of concept experimental set-up.




3. Investigation on a high performance fuel injector by use of thermodynamic instability in fuel/gas mixture. This project involves dissolving a gas in a fuel at high pressures and using the thermodynamic instability for improved atomization of fuel during cold start for reduced hydrocarbon emissions. Ongoing work involves modeling of the instability and design and fabrication of an experimental set-up.